In the time of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ several Jewish tribes were settled in the region of the Hijaz, chiefly in Yathrib (Medina), Khaybar and Tayma. These tribes were descendants of the Banu Isra’il (بنو إسرائيل) and had settled in Arabia centuries before the coming of Islam, often after exiles from Palestine. According to the traditions they moved southward after their sanctuaries in Bayt al-Maqdis were destroyed, and some settled in the fertile oases of the Hijaz, where they practised agriculture and built fortresses.
The best known of these tribes were the Banu Qaynuqaʿ, the Banu Nadir, the Banu Qurayza, and the communities in Khaybar and Tayma.
Their arrival and position in the Hijaz
The Jewish tribes chose the Hijaz on account of its fertile valleys and natural protection. According to Ibn Kathir and al-Tabari they settled there in the expectation that a new prophet would appear in this region, as had been foretold in their own scriptures.¹
When the Arab tribes of Aws and Khazraj later settled in Yathrib, the Jewish tribes concluded treaties with them. They lived as traders, farmers and moneylenders, and managed irrigation systems and date plantations.
They were well organised and possessed fortified settlements (husoon). Many Arab tribes did business with them, and a certain degree of dependence existed, especially through loans and economic ties.
After the Hijra and the treaty of Medina
When the Prophet ﷺ migrated to Medina, the Muslims concluded treaties with the Jewish tribes to secure peace and cooperation. This document, known as the Constitution of Medina, recognised the Jews as part of the community so long as they observed the agreements.
But despite these peace agreements tensions soon arose, often on account of political intrigues, breaches of treaty or participation in hostilities against the Muslims.
Banu Qaynuqaʿ (بنو قينقاع)
The Banu Qaynuqaʿ were goldsmiths and traders in Medina, and they were the first Jewish tribe to break the agreements with the Muslims. The cause was an incident in which a Muslim woman was harassed in their market: a Jewish trader lifted her veil, whereupon a Muslim man killed the offender, and the tribe in turn killed the Muslim, which led to open hostility.
The Prophet ﷺ called on them to respect the treaty, but they refused and shut themselves up in their fortresses. In the end they were defeated after a siege. At the intercession of the tribe of Aws — their former allies — they were not executed but banished from Medina.²
Banu Nadir (بنو النضير)
The Banu Nadir were a powerful tribe with considerable farmland. The conflict arose when the Prophet ﷺ visited them to ask for financial support towards a blood-money obligation (a customary request under their treaty). While he was there, several leaders of the Banu Nadir deliberated over a plan to kill him by dropping a stone from the roof.³
Allah ﷻ revealed their plan to the Prophet ﷺ, whereupon he left the gathering. The Muslims gave the tribe ten days to leave Medina, but they refused and entrenched themselves in their fortresses. After a brief siege they surrendered. They were permitted to sell their possessions and departed in the direction of Khaybar.
Banu Qurayza (بنو قريظة)
The Banu Qurayza were at first allies of the Muslims, but during the Battle of al-Khandaq (the Trench) they secretly joined the Quraysh and the other besiegers of Medina.
While the Muslims were surrounded by enemies from without, the Banu Qurayza broke their treaty, leaving Medina vulnerable from within. When Allah ﷻ drove off the enemies from without, they were held accountable for high treason.
After the siege of their fortresses they submitted to the judgement of Sa’d ibn Mu’adh رضي الله عنه, leader of the Aws tribe. His ruling, based on their own law (the Torah), was that the fighting men would be put to death and the women and children would be taken captive.⁴
This event was grave, yet it was regarded by all sources as a legal execution of the treaty that they themselves had violated.
Khaybar (خيبر)
After the expulsion of the Banu Nadir many Jews moved to Khaybar, a fertile oasis to the north of Medina. Khaybar consisted of several fortresses and was rich in agriculture and trade, and there they formed a power base of resistance against the Islamic community in Medina.
The leaders of Khaybar maintained contact with the Quraysh and other hostile tribes and incited them to war against the Muslims. When their threat increased, the Prophet ﷺ marched with his army to Khaybar.
The Battle of Khaybar took place in the seventh year after the Hijra, and the fortresses were taken one by one. When the inhabitants surrendered, they were permitted to remain and to continue working their land in exchange for half of the harvest.⁵ This arrangement was known as muqāsamah (shared yield), and was later ended under the caliphate of ʿUmar ibn al-Khattab رضي الله عنه.
Tayma’ (تيماء)
Tayma’ lay to the north of Khaybar and was inhabited by Jewish tribes who were known for their wealth and fortresses already before the coming of the Prophet ﷺ. Unlike Khaybar, the inhabitants of Tayma’ took no part in direct warfare against the Muslims.
After the surrender of Khaybar they voluntarily recognised the authority of the state and were allowed to keep their land in exchange for an annual tax (jizyah).⁶
Ibn Kathir – al-Bidayah wa an-Nihayah, vol. 2
Ibn Hisham – al-Sira al-Nabawiyyah, chapter on the Banu Qaynuqaʿ
Al-Tabari – Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, account of the Banu Nadir
Ibn Kathir – Tafsir on Surah al-Ahzab and Surah al-Hashr
Sahih al-Bukhari (Hadith 4240) – account of the Battle of Khaybar
Al-Baladhuri – Futuh al-Buldan, chapter on the conquest of Khaybar and Tayma’